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The material on this page supplements that found in Chapter 5 of The Anatomy of Medical Terminology.
- Where an example word is given in Part A of the textbook, that example word (suitably defined) is appended to the main entry here, and highlighted. Where this example word is not particularly "medical," or where it is in the Manual defined more literally than is the combining form in the textbook, another example is added at the end of the entry.
- The Notes are purposely very condensed, not meant for student consumption but rather as a source for lecture notes.
- The material in most of these notes is not controversial. But experts sometimes disagree, and in some other cases one source is itself inconsistent, indicating an error; in such cases I've made my own decision, indicating shades of conviction roughly with the adverbs "probably" and "perhaps" and "possibly."
- Many cross-references are given; typically I present the full explication of a "family" of words only once, at first occurence, and then cite the number for that presentation when encountering other derivatives later. (It is worth noting that, at a guess, perhaps as many as one quarter of the combining forms presented in the textbook are etymologically "related" to one or more of the others.) I do this also when lecturing, which keeps students on their toes.
< = "from" (or "derived from [what follows]")> = "whence" (or "from which [the following is/are derived]")
[...] when within quotation marks, denotes added words
{...} denotes a note to myself
G = Greek
L = Latin
E = English
IE = Indo-European (note that all IE forms are hypothetical)
AMT = The Anatomy of Medical Terminology
21. -megal/y: < G megas "large" < IE meg(h)- "large" > E much + L Mai/a (goddess of increase [> E May]) + magn/us (17.20 below [> E magn/itud/e, etc.) + mai/or (17.21 below [> E maj/or + maj/or/ity, etc.]) + max/im/us (17.22 below) [> E max/im/um, etc.]) + magister (> E magistrate + master + mistress, etc.) + Sanskrit (> E) maha/raj/ah "great king"
TRANSLATION
The English suffix -megal/y (presented in AMT as number 21 in Chapter 1) is derived from Greek megas meaning "large," which is itself derived from a postulated Indo-European form meg(h)- also meaning "large;" from it are derived English much and Latin Mai/a (from which is derived English May) and Latin magn/us (presented in AMT as number 20 in Chapter 17, and from which are derived English magn/itude and other words) and Latin mai/or (presented in AMT as number 21 in Chapter 17, and from which are derived English maj/or and maj/or/ity and other words) and Latin max/im/us (presented in AMT as number 22 in Chapter 17, and from which are derived English max/im/um and other words) and Latin magister (from which are derived English magistrate and master and mistress and other words) and Sanskrit maha/raj/ah, meaning "great king" (the English word derived from the Sanskrit one is identical to it).
hem/o/rrhag/e < hem/o/rrhag/ia "the rapid flowing of blood;" hem/o/phil/i/ac "having a propensity to (11.24 below) [lose] blood"2. sangu/in/o, sangu/i: < L sanguis, sanguin/is; one of the ancient "four humors" (the others were phlegm [see on 18.5 below], black bile and yellow bile [for "bile" see 9.38 below]), blood was associated with confidence and hope, and in medieval times reddish complexions were felt to be associated with a preponderance of the humor and therefore of those mental qualities; hence sanguine + sang-froid, etc.
sangu/in/e "bloody," hence "passionate and cheerful;" sang-froid (< French < L) "cold blood," hence "cool disposition"
sangu/i/fer/ous "bearing (8.23 below) blood"3. hem/o/glob/in/o: < hem/o (1 above) + L glob/ul/us + -in (1.13 above) > E hem/o/glob/in "a substance, which is globular, of blood;" L glob/ul/us "a little (6.26 below) ball" < L glob/us < IE gloi-, glei-, gli- (see on 4.11 above); hemoglobin, found in red blood cells, is the compound of iron and amino acids which carries oxygen from the lungs (and carbon dioxide back to them), and which gives blood its red color
globe "a ball"
hem/o/glob/in/o/metr/y "the measurement of hemoglobin"4. plasm(at)/o, plasm/a: < G plasma, plasmat/os "something molded" (> E plasma) < G plass/ein "to form" (see on 1.45 above); the word plasma is specialized in Medical Terminology to designate the fluid part of blood (as distinct from the corpuscles) which carries substances other than oxygen and carbon dioxide through the body
plast/ic "molded" (see 1.45 above)
plasm/ap/her/es/is "the removal of (8.28 below) plasma [from blood]"5. thromb/o: < G thromb/os "clot" < IE dherebh- "to coagulate" (see on 1.47 above); clotting is a natural and useful response whenever a blood vessel begins to leak (as when a cut stops bleeding), but when a clot forms internally it may break away and move through the blood system, possibly causing a dangerous blockage in any part of the body
thromb/oid "resembling a clot;" thromb/o/plast/in "a substance [involved in] the formation of clots"6. thromb/o/cyt/o: < E throm/o/cyt/e "a cell [involved in the formation] of clots;" such cells, which are found in blood but contain no hemoglobin, are round or oval discs called "plate/let/s" ("little plates") from their shape (for the etymology of "plate" see on 1.45 above)
thromb/o/cyt/ic "p.t. platelets;" thromb/o/cyt/o/pen/ia "a deficiency of platelets"7. sphygm/o: < G sphygm/os "throbbing, pulse" possibly < IE spheig- (see on 9.33 below)
sphygm/o/meter "an instrument for measuring the pulse;" sphygm/o/gram "a record of the pulse [rate]"8. card(i)/o: < G kard/i/a < IE kerd- > L cor, cord/is ([19.7 below] > E cordi/al "[good-]hearted" or "[a] hearty [drink]" + cord/ate + [through Old French] core) + E heart; though W.B. Yeats was reputedly a poor Latinist {?}, the juxtaposition of the last two words of "The Lake Isle of Innisfree" is perhaps intentional: "...I hear it in the deep heart's core"
cardi/ac "p.t. the heart;" cardi/o/vas/cul/ar "p.t. the vessels (15 below) and heart"9. aort/o, aort/ic/o: < G aorter- "strap, hanger" < G air/ein "to raise, attach" > (probably) L arteri/a (> E arter/y [16 below]); the medical usage of the words "aorta" and "artery" comes either from the idea that the vessels so named "raise" blood from the heart, or (more likely) because they were thought to be tubes from which the heart "hangs;" these vessels were originally thought to contain only air (hence both G aort/a and L arteri/a originally designated the windpipe), because they are empty of blood in dead bodies; when their actual function was understood, G aort/a was specialized in Medical Terminology to designate the main vessel which carries oxygen-rich blood from the heart to the other arteries for distribution to the rest of the body
cardi/o/aort/ic "p.t. the aorta and heart"10. valv(ul)/o: < L valv/a "door-leaf" (> E valve) + valv/ul/a "a little (6.26 below) valve" < IE wolg- "to turn, roll" > E walk + L volv/ere "to turn, roll" (> E vault + con/volut/ion + e/volv/e + in/volv/e + re/volv/e, etc. [see further under "VOLV" in the Wordlist, Appendix II] + L [> E] vulv/a [10.48 below]) + G (> E) helix (> E helic/o/pter) + helminth- "worm" (> E helminth/o [18.29 below]); in Medical Terminology the force of the diminutive in "valv/ul/a" is not felt, so that the words "valv/e" "valv/ul/a" are used interchangeably, without reference to size
valv/ul/ar "p.t. a valve;" cardi/o/val/ul/it/is "the inflammation of valves of the heart"TO TOP OF THIS PAGE
11. ventr/i/cul/o: < L ventr/i/cul/us "a little (6.27 below) belly (16.9 below)" < L venter, ventr/is (see also 9.3 + 14.1 + 16.9 below) < IE udero- "belly" > L (> E) uter/us (10.42 below) + probably G hyster/a (> E hyster/o [10.40 below]); the lower chambers of the heart, which pump blood into the arteries, are called "little bellies" because of their shape
ventr/i/loq/ist "one who speaks [from] the belly"
ventr/i/cul/o/scop/e "an instrument for examining ventricles"12. peri/card(i)/o: < Modern L (< G) peri/cardi/um "a [part] surrounding (13.7 below) the heart (8 above)"
peri/meter "the measurement of [a line] surrounding [something];" peri/scop/e "an instrument for examining [one's] surroundings"
stern/o/peri/cardi/al "p.t. the pericardium and sternum"13. my/o/card(i)/o: < (probably on the analogy of "peri/cardi/um [12 above]) Modern L my/o/cardi/um "the [part of the] heart [which is] muscular"
my/o/cardi/o/graph "an instrument for recording the myocardium"14. angi/o: < G ang/os "vessel"
angi/o/gram "a record of the vessels;" angi/oma "a tumor (12.73 below) involving the vessels"15. vas/o, vas/cul/o: < L vas "vessel, container" (> E vase + probably vagin/a [10.46 and 17.72 below]) + vas/cul/um "a little (6.27 below) vessel" (> E vessel); the force of the diminutive in the combining form "vas/cul/o" is not usually felt, except when it is used in the words and phrases of the Nomina Anatomica, when it is always observed
vas/e "a container;" vas/ec/tom/y "the cutting out of a vessel [usually the one which carries semen from the testes, called the vas deferens (10.25 below)]"
cardi/o/vas/cul/ar "p.t. the vessels and heart (8 above)"16. arter(i)/o: < L ar/ter/i/a probably < G air/ein "to raise, attach" (see on 9 above); an alternative etymology derives the word < G aer "air" (12.3 below) + "-ter" (perhaps on the analogy of the last syllable of the word "ureter" ["urine carrier;" 10.14 below]), on which theory the vessels would be so called because the ancients, seeing them empty in corpses, assumed that they were "air-carriers" or "air-pipes" (but this is probably a "false [or 'popular'] etymology"); arteries, necessarily strong because blood is pumped into them, have four layers including one made of tough elastic tissue
vertebr/o/arteri/al "p.t. arteries and vertebrae;" ligament/um arteri/os/um "a ligament p.t. an artery"17. phleb/o: < G phleps, phleb/os "vein" < IE bhel- + bhle- "to blow, blow up, swell" > E blow + blast + bladder + ball + boll + bowl + bloat + L flu/ere "to flow" (> E flu/ent + fluid + in/flu/ence +in/flu/enz/a [a disease formerly thought to be the result of evil things, or "in/flu/ences," which "flow in" through open windows at night], etc. [see further under "FLU" in the Wordlist, Appendix II]) + fl/are "to blow" (> E flat/ulent + de/flate + in/flate, etc. [see further under "FLA" in the Wordlist, Appendix II]) + foll/is "bellows" (> E fool + folly + foll/i/cle [16.13 below]) + G phall/os (> L [> E] phall/us [10.30 below]); probably related is IE bhle- "to swell, sprout" > E blade + bloom + blister + blood + bleed + bloat + L flor, flor/is (> E flour + flower + flourish, etc.) + G (> E) phyll/on; by contrast to arteries, veins have only three layers and also feature valves to keep the much less highly-pressured blood which flows through them moving in the right direction
phleb/it/is "the inflammation of veins" (this word became well-known during the final months of the presidency of Richard Nixon, when the affliction interfered with his ability to respond to charges concerning Watergate); pleb/o/scler/os/is "the hardening of [the walls of] the vessels"18. ven/o: < L ven/a (> E "vein") probably < IE wegh- "to go" (see on 4.14 above);
veh/i/cl/e "a little (6.27 below) carrier"
intra/ven/ous "inside (13.16) a vein"19. cap/ill/ar/o: shortened < L vas (15 above) cap/ill/ar/e "a vessel p.t. little (6.29 below) hairs;" the adjective has undergone a change of function to become an English noun denoting any of the tiny, hair-like vessels connecting arteries to veins
chori/o/cap/ill/ar/is "p.t. capillaries of the choroid"20. varic/o: < L varix, varic/is "swollen vessel" probably < IE wa- "to bend, turn" (see on 4.14 above)
varic/os/e < L varic/os/us "full of varic/es"
neur/o/varic/os/is "an abnormal condition involving varic/es and nerves"TO TOP OF THIS PAGE
21. cirs/o: < G kirs/os "enlargement of a vein"
cirs/oid "resembling a varix;" cirs/o/tom/e "an instrument for cutting a varix"22. lymph/o, lymphat/o: < L lymph/a (< Old L limp/a) "clear water" (> E limp/id "[perfectly] clear, clear [and simple]") + lymph/a/t/us "watered" (participle of lymph/are < lymph/a); the evolution of these combining forms seems to feature two separate cases of false or "popular" etymology: the Romans altered the spelling their word "limp/a" (or "lump/a"), meaning "spring of clear water," on the analogy of unrelated G nymph/e (10.50 below), because of the many mythical associations between nymphs and springs, while the modern use of "lymphat-" is on the analogy of words in "-mat-" (derma, dermat/os, for example); in Medical Terminology lymph is a clear, yellowish fluid which resembles blood plasma; note that the word also, but rarely, denotes any body fluid similar in appearance, as for example the clear fluid produced by inflamed tissues
hem/o/lymph "the lymph and blood (considered together)"23. lymph/angi/o: (a modern coinage) "vessel (14 above) of lymph (22 above);" lymph vessels collect fluid from body tissues and carry it into the veins
thromb/o/lymph/ang/it/is (note the coalescence < ...angi-) "the inflammation of a lymph vessel, involving a clot"24. lymph/aden/o: (a modern, and erroneous, coinage) "gland (29 below) of lymph (22 above);" what are now called "lymph nodes" (small structures along the lymph vessels, which produce lymphocytes and antibodies and serve as filters) were originally, but wrongly, thought to be glands
lymph/aden/it/is "the inflammation of a lymph node"25. splen/o: < G splen "milt, spleen" (> E spleen) < IE sp(h)elgh- > G sphlankhn/on "entrail" (> E splanchn/o [9.7 below]) + probably L lien, lien/is "milt" (> E lien/o [26 below]; alternatively L lien may derive directly from G splen; E "milt" is the milky fluid filling the reproductive glands of male fish; {why applied to the spleen? Resemblance of contents?}
the use of the word to describe a mental state, as in "full of spleen," derives from the medieval view that the organ was the source of ill-humour and irritability; hence "splen/et/ic"
splen/et/ic (< splen/es/ia) "p.t. an abnormal condition involving the spleen"
cardi/o/splen/o/pex/y "the fixation of the spleen and heart"26. lien/o: see on 25 above
lien/o/malac/ia "the softening of the spleen"27. (endo)crin/o: < G endo- "inside" (13.14 below) + G krin/ein "to separate" (> E cris/is); G krin- < IE (s)krei- "to sift, separate" < IE (s)ker- "to cut" > L cern/ere, cret- (> E dis/cern + dis/cret/e + se/cret/e + se/cret/ion, etc. [see further under "CERN" in the Wordlist, Appendix II]) + (probably) scurr/a "buffoon" (> E scurr/il/ous) + G krit/ik/os (> E crit/ic, etc.) + L carn- "flesh" (> E carn/age + carn/al + carn/at/ion + carn/i/val [< Medieval L carn/i/lev/ari/um "a flesh-removing" but associated by popular etymology with "carn/em val/e" "flesh, farewell!"] + carr/ion + crone, etc.) + E shear + short + harvest + scurf "dry shed skin scales" (dandruff, e.g.; > scurvy
endo/crin/e (note that the word is usually used as an adjective, due to confusion of its ending with the adjectival termination "-in/e" [1.8 above]) "secreting inside (13.14 below)" (specialized to describe ductless glands which produce secretions which go directly into the blood stream, as opposed to "ex/o/crin/e" glands, which "secrete outside [13.12 below]" through ducts)
endo/crin/o/log/y "the study of secretions"28. hormon/o: < G horm/on "urger, stimulator" (specialized to designate "a substance which excites a reaction in the body") < IE ser- "to flow" > L (> E) ser/um "whey" (12.17 below)
hormon/al therapy "treatment by means of hormones"29. aden/o: < G aden "gland"
aden/oid "resembling a gland;" aden/oid/s "several [growths of lymphatic tissue in the upper throat] resembling glands"
dacry/o/aden/alg/ia "pain in a gland involving tears"30. gland/ul/o: < L gland/ul/a "a little (6.26 below) acorn" < L glans, gland/is (> E gland + glans [10.32 below]) < IE gwel- "oak, acorn" > G balan/os (10.32 below); for the occasional cognate relationship of L /g/ and G /b/ see on 1.39 above; the modern application of the word to what we now call "glands" is probably due to the fact that L glans came to denote any vaguely acorn-shaped nut or small fruit, which some glands in turn vaguely resemble; note that the force of the diminutive in "gland/ul/a" is not felt in Medical Terminology
gland/ul/ar "p.t. a gland;" gland/ul/a con/junct/iv/al/is "a gland p.t. the conjunctiva"TO TOP OF THIS PAGE
31. pine/al/o: shortened < L gland/ul/a pin/e/al/is "a gland p.t. (in the sense of 'resembling') a [small] pine[cone];" L pin/e/al/is < L pin/us (> E pine-tree + pine/apple "fruit [resembling] a pine[cone]") < IE pitsnus < IE pi- "to be fat, distended" > E fat + L pix, pic/is (> E pitch) + pituit/a "phlegm" (> E pituit/ar/y [32 below]) + G pimel/e "lard" (> E pimel/o "fat" [12.21 below])
pine/al/o/path/y "a disease of the pineal gland"32. hypo/phys(e)/o: < G hypo/phys/is "something which grows below (13.4 below) [the brain];" G phys/is (> E phys/ic/s "things which have grown or become" [translating G ta phys/ik/a] + phys/ic/al + phys/i/o/therap/y, etc.) < G phy/ein "to grow" < IE bheu- "to grow, become" > L fi/er/i "be made" (20.16 below; > E fiat, etc.) + E be + bond/age + G phyt/on "plant" (> E -phyt/e "a plant, growth" [19.36 below]); called the "pituit/ar/y gland" ("a gland p.t. phlegm [< L pituit/a; see on 31 above])" because it was once thought (erroneously) to secrete the mucus which is actually produced by exocrine glands in the respiratory tract
phys/i/o/log/y "the study of growth [and its results];" phys/ic/al "p.t. [that which has] grown," hence "natural"
neur/o/hypo/phys/ec/tom/y "the cutting out of the pituitary gland and nerves"33. par/ot(id)/o: shortened < L gland/ul/a par/ot/id/e/a "a gland (30 above) beside [and in front of] the ear" < G para "beside" (13.9 below) + G ous, ot/is "ear" (2.13 above); note that the parotid glands are actually exocrine, rather than endocrine, glands
par/ot/it/is "the inflammation of the parotid glands" (popularly known as "mumps")34. thyr(oid)/o: shortened < L gland/ul/a thyr/oid/e/a "a gland (30 above) resembling a shield;" L thyr/oid/e/a < G thyr/e/os "a [large shield shaped like a double] door" < G thyr/a "door" <IE dwhor- > E door + Old L for/a (> [through French] E foreign [originally "out-of-doors"] + fore/close "shut the doors" + forfeit); this gland, whose shape to modern eyes perhaps more readily suggests that of a butterfly, is located below the larynx and on both sides of the windpipe (for which see Chapter 6), across the front of which its two parts are connected by strands of tissue
stern/o/thyr/oid "p.t. the thyroid gland and the sternum" (for "-oid" here translated "pertaining to" see AMT 8.B.ii.a.); cartilago thyr/oid/e/a "a cartilage p.t. the thyroid gland"35. para/thyr/o, para/thyr/oid/o: shortened < L gland/ul/a para/thyr/oid/e/a" "a gland (30 above) beside (13.9 below) [the gland] resembling a shield (34 above);" the parathyroids are located in or near the corners of the thyroid
para/thyr/oid/ec/tom/iz/e "to cut out the parathyroid glands"36. thym/o: < G thym/os "warty excrescence" {?? so Scarborough; but is it related to thym/os' "spirit, soul"?; are either related to G thym/a < thu/ein "make sacrifice" < IE dheu- "to smoke, be dark or murky" > L fum/us (> E fume "smoke, gas") + E dumb + dull + down "soft dust-like feathers" + dwell (< Old E dwell/an "to obscure")?; for surely, given its location, it is the Homeric thymos?; G thy'm/os meant "thyme" and also denoted a mixture of the herb with honey and vinegar, used in sacrifices--was the gland so used, or perhaps otherwise specially used, in sacrifices?; animal thymus, cooked, is called "sweetbread"}
thym/e ? {? see above}
thym/o/kin/et/ic "p.t. the movement of [secretions from (see AMT 5.B.ii.b.)] the thymus"37. ad/ren/o, ad/ren/al/o: shortened < L gland/ul/a ad/ren/al/is "a gland at (13.27 below) the kidney (10.11 below);" the gland is more accurately "above" the kidney (see 38 below)
ren/al "p.t. the kidney;" ad/ren/al/in(/e) "a substance [secreted by] the adrenal gland" (the word, spelled without the final "-e," coined in 1901 by the American chemist who first isolated the substance, Dr. J. Takamine, is a trade name held by Park-Davis; Takamine, who apparently added the final "-e" for use in general English, seems to have mixed things up [perhaps influenced by the last syllable of his own name?]: "ad/ren/al/in" [1.13 above] would be a suitable generic name, while the adjective "ad/ren/al/in/e [1.8 above] would be more appropriate for a trade name; in any case the word, without final "-e," is probably a good example of those trade names which have passed into the general vocabulary [cf., for example, the verb "to xerox"])
sym/path/o/ad/ren/al "p.t. the adrenal glands and sympathetic nerves"38. supra/ren/o, supra/ren/al/o: shortened < L gland/ul/a supra/ren/al/is "a gland (30 above) above (14.3 below) the kidney (10.11 below)"
supra/ren/o/trop/ism "the tendency to preferentially affect the adrenal glands"39. insul/o: < L insul/a "island" (> E islet + insul/ate + isol/ate, etc. [but not, surprisingly, "is-land," which is a native E word meaning "water-land"]); perhaps shortened from L terr/a in sal/o "land in salt[sea];" specialized in Medical Terminology to denote the tiny "island-like" glands in the pancreas (9.21 below) known, after histologist Paul Langerhans, 1847-88, as "the islets of Langerhans"
insul/ar "p.t. an island;" insul/at/e "to [make into] an island" ("isol/at/e" is a variant form); pen/insul/a "an almost-(1.29 above) island"
insul/o/path/ic "p.t. a disease of the islets of Langerhans"40. gonad/o: < G gon/e "seed" (> E gon/ad "[the organ which] produces [offspring]") < IE gen- "to produce, bear" (see on 1.23 above); "gonad" is a general word, denoting both the ovaries (10.37 below) and testes (10.23 below)
gonad/o/therap/y "treatment by means of [secretions from (see AMT 5.B.ii.b.)] the gonads"TO TOP OF THIS PAGE
For lists of phrases illustrating Neuter Singular Nominative endings, see the Table of Ligamenta and the Table of Ganglia in the Wordlist, Appendix I.- AMT p. 79 note c
For more phrases illustrating Singular Nominative endings, see (in addition to the Tables referred to above) the Tables of Musculi, Nervi, Venae and Arteriae in the Wordlist, Appendix I.To top of page