"Commonest cause of all, throughout the history of riots, was hunger, attested in almost

every province and period. ... the poor always suffered worse than the rich, and expressed

their sense of wrong by mob attacks on emperor, officials, or local grandees such as Dio

Chrysostom or Symmachus."" R. MacMullen, Enemies of the Roman Order, p180.

"Paul’s time in Corinth seems to have coincided with a period of food shortage in the Roman

world. This is attested at Corinth by inscriptions erected by several Corinthian tribes and

honoring Tiberius Claudius Dinippus for his service as curator annonae, probably c. A.D.

51. Such food shortages often led to unrest, especially in the urban communities, and this

may have contributed to the circumstances which allowed the Jews to bring Paul before the

proconsul Gallio (Acts 18:12)." D.W.J. Gill, "Achaia", The Book of Acts in its Graeco-Roman Setting

p451-2.

"A third motivating factor, however, must not be forgotten; fear of what might happen if

conspicuous donations were not made. Cultural values of the day virtually made such

benefactions a duty. Failure to meet expectations, especially at critical times, could

result in shame, and, more concretely, angry mobs seeking revenge against

wealthier inhabitants." P.A. Harland, Associations, Synagogues and Congregations, p100.

"The unearthing of epigraphic evidence relating to the experience of grain shortages has

provided insights into a first century situation of civil unrest and benefaction which relates in

revealing ways to the actions and motivations of characters in the book of Acts," B.W. Winter,

"Acts and Food Shortages", The Book of Acts in its Graeco-Roman Setting p59.

"Euergetism, the public munificence of the rich, could usually be relied upon to ward off both

starvation and unrest." P. Garnsey, Famine and Food Supply in the Graeco-Roman World, p30.

"fear of famine rather than famine itself was enough to set people on the rampage, as in 57

BC or AD 51." P. Garnsey, Famine and Food Supply in the Graeco-Roman World, p30.

Lalla "having pledged herself to pay each year as interest to each of the 1,100 grain

recipients 1 denarius per head on 15 June, the first day of the magisterial elections. In

return, the city in the electoral assembly urged the priest of the Augusti by acclamation to

propose that Lalla bear the title Mother of the City." Lalla decree, quoted by Garnsey p263.

"There are thousands of inscriptions celebrating the generosity of local benefactors who

gave grain, oil and wine or sold it cheap, contributed to funds for the purchase of extra

stocks, and served as grain commisioners. The spirit of patriotic munificence was

contagious, and it touched people of modest wealth, not just the highest ranking notables."

P. Garnsey, Famine and Food Supply in the Graeco-Roman World, p261.

"Except as a fire-brigade in Rome, and when there was fear of riots in times of scarcity, he

employed freedmen as soldiers only twice: once as a guard for the colonies in the vicinity of

Illyricum, and again to defend the bank of the river Rhine" Suetonius Aug.25

"During the same consulship a high price of corn almost brought on an insurrection. For

several days there were many clamorous demands made in the theatre with an unusual

freedom of language towards the emperor. This provoked him to censure the magistrates

and the Senate for not having used the authority of the State to put down the people." Tacitus

annals VI

"Now the masses, distressed by the famine and the tax and the losses sustained in the fire,

were ill at ease, and they not only openly discussed numerous plans for a revolution, but

also posted at night even more numerous bulletins. Word was given out that all this had

been planned and managed by one Publius Rufus, but suspicion was directed to others; for

as Rufus could neither have devised nor accomplished any of these things, it was believed

that others, making use of his name, were planning a revolution. Therefore an investigation of

the affair was voted for and rewards for information were announced. Information began to be

offered, and this also contributed to the commotion in the city. This lasted until the scarcity

of grain was at an end and gladiatorial games in honour of Drusus were given by

Germanicus Caesar and Tiberius Claudius Nero, his sons." Cassius Dio 55.27.

"When there was a scarcity of grain because of long-continued droughts, he was once

stopped in the middle of the Forum by a mob and so pelted with abuse and at the same

time with pieces of bread, that he was barely able to make his escape to the Palace by a

back door; and after this experience he resorted to every possible means to bring grain to

Rome, even in the winter season. To the merchants he held out the certainty of profit by

assuming the expense of any loss that they might suffer from storms, and offered to those

who would build merchant ships large bounties, adapted to the condition of each: to a

citizen exemption from the lex Papia Poppaea; to a Latin the rights of Roman citizenship; to

women the privileges allowed the mothers of four children. And all these provisions are in

force to-day." Suetonius Claud.18

"Several prodigies occurred in that year. Birds of evil omen perched on the Capitol; houses

were thrown down by frequent shocks of earthquake, and as the panic spread, all the weak

were trodden down in the hurry and confusion of the crowd. Scanty crops too, and

consequent famine were regarded as a token of calamity. Nor were there merely whispered

complaints; while Claudius was administering justice, the populace crowded round him with

a boisterous clamour and drove him to a corner of the forum, where they violently pressed on

him till he broke through the furious mob with a body of soldiers. It was ascertained that

Rome had provisions for no more than fifteen days, and it was through the signal bounty of

heaven and the mildness of the winter that its desperate plight was relieved. And yet in past

days Italy used to send supplies for the legions into distant provinces, and even now it is not

a barren soil which causes distress. But we prefer to cultivate Africa and Egypt, and trust

the life of the Roman people to ships and all their risks." Tacitus Ann. XII

"Again, no man is more blameless than I am in connection with the present shortage. Have I

produced the most grain of all and then put it under lock and key, raising the price? Why,

you yourselves know the productive capacity of my farms — that I rarely, if ever, have sold

grain, even when the harvest is unusually productive, and that in all these years I have not

had even enough for my own needs, but that the income from my land is derived exclusively

from wine and cattle. Nay but, some one may claim, though I lend money, I am unwilling to

supply it for the purchase of grain. There is no need for me to say anything on that score

either, for you know both those who lend money in our city and those who borrow. …

Besides, though the matter over which you have become incensed truly does require some

attention, still it is not beyond repair or such as to make you act as you are acting. For

while the cost of grain has risen higher than what is customary here, it is not so high as to

make you desperate. Why, there are cities in which it always is at that price, when

conditions are best! There you go, making a tumult once more,11 as if I were saying it ought

to be that price at Prusa too, and never lower. But the point I am making is that, while it is

necessary to take steps to make it cheaper, still it is not necessary to feel so bitter over

what had happened or to lose your senses; for the way you have acted just now is not the

conduct befitting such a matter, nay, if I had murdered your children and your wives you

could not have behaved with greater savagery." Dio Chrysostom Or.XLVI

"but a city hard pressed by famine is not so tractable, nor so easily brought to a better

mood by persuasive words and its passion quelled. But in the case of Apollonius, mere

silence on his part was enough for those so affected. Anyhow, when he came to Aspendus

in Pamphylia (and this city is built on the river Eurymedon, lesser only than two others

about there), he found vetches on sale in the market, and the citizens were feeding upon

this and on anything else they could get; for the rich men had shut up all the grain and were

holding it up for export from the country. Consequently an excited crowd of all ages had set

upon the governor, and were lighting a fire to burn him alive, although he was clinging to the

statues of the Emperor" Philostratus Life of Apollonius 1.15

""But of the people of Alexandria what can one say, a folk to whom you need only throw

plenty of bread and a ticket to the hippodrome, since they have no interest in anything

else?"" Dio Chrysostom Or.XXXII.31

Caesar "knew that the causes of hatred and mainsprings of popularity are determined by the

price of foood. Hunger alone makes cities free; and when men in power feed the idle mob,

they buy subservience a starving people is incapable of fear." Lucan, Pharsalia, III.54-58.

"What then must have been the feeling of those who had charge of the corn-market, and had

to face stones, the sward, fire ..." Seneca, De Brevitate Vitae, XVIII.6.

"After these events, Gallus being about to set out for Hierapolis, in order, as far as

appearance went, to take part in the expedition, the common people of Antioch entreated

him in a suppliant manner to remove their fear of a famine which for many reasons (some of

them difficult to explain) it was believed was impending; Gallus, however, did not, as is the

custom of princes whose power, by the great extent of country over which it is diffused, is

able continually to remedy local distresses, order any distribution of food to be made, or any

supplies to be brought from the neighboring countries; but he pointed out to them a man of

consular rank, named Theophilus, the governor of Syria, who happened to be standing by,

replying to the repeated appeals of the multitude, who were trembling with apprehensions of

the last extremities, that no one could possibly want food if the governor were not willing that

they should be in want of it.

These words increased the audacity of the lower classes, and when the scarcity of

provisions became more severe, urged by hunger and frenzy, they set fire to and burnt down

the splendid house of a man of the name of Eubulus, a man of great reputation among his

fellow-citizens; and they attacked the governor himself with blows and kicks as one

especially made over to them by the judgment of the emperor, kicking him till he was half

dead, and then tearing him to pieces in a miserable manner." Ammianus 14.7.5-6.

For further discussion of mob violence see Moyer V. Hubbard, Urban Uprisings in the

Roman World: The Social Setting of the Mobbing of Sosthenes. New Test. Stud. 51 2005

pp.416-428.

Back to Crispus-Sosthenes page